History of Genetic Engineering

History of Genetic Engineering Genetic engineering is a deliberate modification of the characteristics of an organism by manipulating its genetic material. This chapter describes how work carried out between 1970s and 1980s produced technologies that researchers now use to manipulate the genetic material of organisms. Key concepts covered: Recombinant-DNA technology is a technology in which genetic material from one organism is introduced into another organism and then replicated and expressed by that other organism. Gene sequencing is the process of determining the precise order of nucleotides within a DNA molecule. Recombinant-DNA technology has been used to make insulin and other human proteins for medicine. Recombinant DNA The prospect of recombinant DNA emerged from two advances in biochemistry: (1) Discoveries of restriction enzymes that act as scissors to cut molecules of DNA at specific nucleotide sequences; and (2) Discoveries of DNA ligases enzymes that forge molecular bonds. Creation of First Recombinant DNA (1972) In 1972, Paul Berg (1926- ), a biochemistry professor at Stanford University, created the first recombinant DNA molecule. He first isolated the DNA molecules from two different organisms, the SV40 monkey virus and a bacterial virus known as Lamdba bacteriophage (or phage ÃŽÂ »).   Using a cut-and-splice method, he created sticky ends in the DNA of both viruses. Then he joined them together with DNA ligase. Invention of Recombinant DNA (rDNA) Technology (1973) Recombinant-DNA technology is a technology in which a rDNA plasamid is introduced into bacteria and then replicated and expressed by that bacteria. It was invented through the work of Herbert W. Boyer (1936- ), Stanley N. Cohen (1935- ), Paul Berg, and Janet Mertz (1949- ). After Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecules in 1972, Boyer and Cohen took Bergs work a step further by introducing the rDNA plasmid to E. coli bacterial cells. A plasmid is DNA, found in bacteria, that is separate from and can replicate independently of the bacteriums chromosomal DNA. The phenomenon of transformation permits the rDNA plasmid to be introduced into and expressed by E. coli cells. The bacteria containing the rDNA plasmid grow on petri dishes to form tiny colonies. But in a typical procedure, only 1 in about 10,000 bacteria cells takes up the rDNA plasmid. The rDNA plasmid must contain a selectable gene so that they can be efficiently picked up   from the culture. This can be done by using a drug-resistance gene to make the rDNA plasmid resistant to antibiotics such as tetracycline.   Adding tetracycline to the culture will ensure that only the bacteria with the rDNA plasmids survive. In 1974, at the urge of Standford Universitys patent office, Boyer and Cohen filed a patent for recombinant DNA technology. Asilomar Conferences Potential dangers of recombinant genetic engineering emerged even before Berg published his landmark 1972 paper. Although the SV40 virus was thought to be harmless for human, Borg was concerned about the prospect of an altered form of the virus spreading through a common bacteria. So he deferred part of his research program, and did not insert the recombinant virus into bacterial cells as he originally planned. In 1973, Berg organized a small conference at Asilomar, California to address the growing concerns about gene-manipulation technology. In 1974 Berg published a widely discussed letter on the potential dangers of recombinant DNA research. Subsequently, a moratorium on research in 1975 (Asilomar II) provided time for regulations to be devised and put into effect in 1976. Gene Sequencing, Gene Splicing, and Reverse Transcription Gene Sequencing Gene sequencing is the process of determining the precise order of nucleotides within a DNA molecule. It includes any method that is used to determine the order of the four bases A, G, C, and T in a strand of DNA. Frederick Sanger (1918-2013), a biochemist in England, is a pioneer of sequencing. He has received two Nobel prizes: one for the sequencing of proteins (in 1958), the other for the sequencing of DNA (in 1980). In the early 1950s, Sanger had solved the sequencing of a protein using a sequence of degradation reactions. A protein is made up of a sequence of amino acids strung into a chain. To identify the sequence of a protein, Sanger would snap off one amino acid from the end of the chain, dissolve it in solvents, and identify it chemically. He would repeat the degradation and identification process until he reached the end of the protein. In the mid-1960s, Sanger switched his focus from protein to DNA. But his methods that had worked so well for proteins didnt work for DNA. Proteins are chemically structured such that amino acids can be serially snapped off the chain but with DNA, no such tools existed. In 1971, Sanger devised a gene-sequencing technique using the copying reaction of DNA polymerase. At first, the method was inefficient and error-prone because the copying reaction was too fast. In 1975, He made an ingenious modification. He doctored the copying reaction with a series of chemicals variants of A, C, G, and T -that were still recognized by DNA polymerase, but slowed down its copying ability. On February 24, 1977, Sanger used this technique to reveal the full sequence of   phi X 174 (or ÃŽÂ ¦X174) bacteriophage. Gene Splicing In 1977, scientists discovered that most animal (and animal virus) proteins were not encoded in long, continuous stretches of DNA. They were split into modules, interrupted by regions called introns that do not hold protein-encoding information. By splitting the genes into modules, a cell could generate more combination of messages out of a single gene. When a DNA with introns is used to build RNA the introns have to be removed from the RNA message. This phrase for the process is called gene splicing or RNA splicing. Reverse Transcription In 1970, David Baltimore (1938- ) and Howard Temin (1934-94), two virologists, discovered an enzyme that could build DNA from an RNA template. They called the enzyme reverse transcriptase. Using this enzyme, every RNA in a cell could be used as a template to build its corresponding DNA. The production of proteins from recombinant DNA represented a crucial transition in the history of medical technology. To understand the impact of this transition from genes to medicine we need to understand the nature of drugs. Nearly every drug works by binding to its target and enabling or disabling it turning molecular switches on or off. To be useful, a drug must bind to its switches but to only a selected set of switches. Most molecules can barely achieve this level of specificity but proteins have been designed explicitly for this purpose. Proteins are the enabler and disablers, the regulators, the gatekeepers, the operators, of cellular reactions. They are the switches that most drugs seek to turn on or off. Proteins are thus poised to be some of the most potent and most discriminating medicines in the pharmacological world. But to make a protein, one needs its gene and here recombinant DNA technology provided the crucial link. The cloning of human gens allowed scientists to manufacture proteins and the synthesis of proteins opened the possibility of targeting the millions of biochemical reactions in the human body. Proteins made it possible for chemists to intervene on previously impenetrable aspects of our physiology. The use of recombinant DNA to produce proteins thus marked a transition not just between one gene and one medicine, but between genes and anovel universe of drugs. Founding of Genetech (1975) In 1975, Robert Swanson (1947-99), a venture capitalist, approached Herb Boyer with a proposal to starting a company that would use gene-cloning techniques to make medicines. Boyer was fascinated. His own son had been diagnosed with a potential growth disorder, and Boyer had been gripped by the possibility of producing human growth hormone, a protein to treat such growth defects. Three hours after they met, Swanson and Boyer had reached a tentative agreement to start such a company with seed moneys from venture firms. Boyer called this company Genentech a condensation of Genetic Engineering Technology. Synthesis of Insulin (1978) Purified animal-sourced insulin was the only type of insulin available to diabetics until genetic advances occurred later with medical research. The amino acid structure of insulin was characterized in 1953 by Frederick Sanger. The protein was made up of two chains (A and B) one larger and one smaller, cross-linked by chemical bonds. Boyers plan for the synthesis of insulin was simple. He did not have the gene for human insulin at hand no one did but he would build it from scratch using DNA chemistry, nucleotide by nucleotide, triplet upon triplet. He would make one gene for the A chain, and another gene for the B chain. He would insert both the genes in bacteria and trick them to synthesizing the human proteins.. He would purify the two protein chains and then stitch them chemically to obtain the U-shaped molecule. But Boyer was cautious. He wanted an easier test case before lunging straight for insulin.   He focused on another protein somatostatin also a hormone, but with little commercial potential. To synthesize the somatostatin gene from scratch, Boyer recruited Keiichi Itakura and Art Riggs from the City of Hope in Los Angeles. Swanson was opposed to the whole plan. He wanted Boyer to move to insulin directly. Genentech was living in borrowed space on borrowed money. Still Boyer convinced Swanson to give somatostatin a chance. In the meantime, two teams of of geneticist had also entered the race to make insulin. One at Harvard and the other one at UCSF. By the fall of 1977, they succeeded in synthesizing somatostatin, and started focusing on insulin. At this time, the competition was fierce. The Harvard team had apparently cloned the native human gene out of human cells and were ready to make the protein. The UCSF team has synthesized a few micrograms of protein and were planning to inject the human hormone into patients. It was Asilomar that came to their rescue. Like most University laboratories with federal funding, the UCSF team was bounded by the Asilomar restrictions on recombinant DNA. In contrast, Boyers team had decided to use a chemically synthesized version of the insulin gene. A synthetic gene DNA created as a naked chemical fell into the gray zone of Asilomars language and was relatively exempt. Genentech, as a privately funded company, was also relatively exempt from the federal guidelines. In the summer of 1978, Boyer learned that the Harvard team was about to announce successful isolation of the human hormone gene. To his relief, the gene that the Harvard team had cloned was not human but rate insulin. Cloning had made it easy to cross the barriers between species. By May 1978, Genentech had synthesized the two chains of insulin in bacteria. By July, the scientists had purified the proteins out of the bacteria debris. In early August, they snipped of the the attached bacterial proteins and isolated the two individual chains.   On August 21, 1978, they joined the protein chains together in a test tube to create the first molecules of recombinant insulin. In September 1979, Genentech applied for a patient for insulin. The Genetech patent would soon become one of the most lucrative petents in the history of technology. Synthesis of factor VIII (1983) Hemophilia is a rare bleeding disorder in which the blood doesnt clot normally. If you have hemophilia, you may bleed for a longer time than others after an injury. You also may bleed inside your body (internally), especially in your knees, ankles, and elbows. This bleeding can damage your organs and tissues and may be life threatening. Hemophilia is caused by a single mutation in the gene for a crucial clotting factor in blood, called factor VIII, and, until the mid-1980s, was treated with injections of concentrated factor VIII. During 1982 and early 1983, an emergence of mysterious immunological collapse among patients with multiple blood transfusions pinpointed the cause of the illness to blood-born factor that had contaminated the supply of factor VIII -a virus called AIDS. Nearly all the HIV-infacted hemophiliacs from the initial cohort had died of the complications of AIDS. In the spring of 1983, Dave Goeddel (1951- ) at Genentech began to focus on cloning the factor VIII gene. Meanwhile, a team of researchers from Harvard, lead by Tom Maniatis (1943- ) and Mark Ptashne (1940- ), formed a company called Genetics Institute (GI) also joined the race. As with insulin, the logic behind the cloning effort was evident: rather than purifying the missing clotting factor out of liters of human blood, why not create the protein artificially, using gene cloning? If factor VIII could be produced through gene-cloning methods, it would be virtually free of any human contaminants, i=thereby rendering it inherently safer than any blood-derived protein. Genetech knew that the factor VIII project would challenge the outer limits of gene-cloning technology. Somatostatin had 14 amino acids; insulin had 51. Factor VIII had 2,350. To succeed, the gene cloners would need to use new cloning technologies   Both the somatstatin and insulin genes had been created from scratch by stitching together bases of DNA. But factor VIII gene was far too large to be created using DNA chemistry. To isolate the factor VIII gene, Genetech would need to tpull the native gene out of human cells. Tom Maniatis of GI, found a solution: he had pioneered the technology to build genes out of RNA   templateds using reverse transcriptase, the enzyme that could build DNA from RNA. Reverse transcriptase made it possible to clone a gene after the intervening stuffer sequences had been snipped off by the cells splicing apparatus. In April, 1983, both Genentech and GI announced that they had purified recombinant factor VIII in test tubes a blood-clotting factor untainted by human blood. The production of factor VIII from its gene broke an important conceptual ground. The fears of Asilomar had been perfectly inverted. And gene cloning had emerged as potentially the safest way to produce a medical product for human use.  

Community Services Essay

1.Five items that I would include in the agenda list are; the name of the person who is coordinating the meeting, attendees (people who will be attending e.g., stakeholders), the start time of the meeting, the scheduled end time of the meeting and the matters for discussion such as feedbacks or housing. 2.Information that I may need to gather when preparing for Danny’s case management are Danny’s background history in regards to support services that he may have been using in the past whether he has been successful or not and if Danny is eligible for any other services and the criteria that falls into. 3.The purpose of the case management meeting is to establish a relationship with the client so that the client can feel confident being represented at the meeting and the concerns that would be reflected in the agenda for example alcohol is Danny’s concern. As a case manager I should be aware of the client’s objectives in the meeting and allowing the client the opportunity to indicate an agreement with the objectives such as in Danny’s case it is a life skill course. 4.My rights, roles and responsibility as Danny’s case manager would be to work with Danny to achieve the goals that he has identified, providing him with information about different services that are available to him and informing him the actions of his outcomes. I will also enable Danny to make decisions about his own life even if I won’t agree to it. Danny’s rights, roles and responsibilities would be to actively participate in his case plan, to be involved in identifying his own needs and to be attending all of his appointments with his case manager. 5.Two statutory requirements I must observe when obtaining information from other stakeholders are Freedom of Information Act 1982 and Privacy Act 1988. 6.Three key factors that would be important to ensure that Danny’s case is operating within the appropriate legislative requirements is respecting Danny’s confidentiality and also protecting his personal information from unauthorised disclosure. Informing Danny about the nature of all the services being provided to him and obtaining consent from Danny if he chooses to continue to withdraw from the services and lastly responding to Danny’s requests of information about the way that I, my organisation, or the stakeholders are working on. 7.I will record the outcomes of the meeting by taking effective case notes during the meeting and making a summary of what has happened in the meeting. All of the records has to be clearly labelled, dated and stored away somewhere safety locked in a filing cabinet. 8.Three boundaries that I need to discuss with Danny are about my relationship with him meaning that it should be professional e.g. not to have a dual relationship, explaining to Danny on the first meeting that my work is set to focus on the work that I will be doing for him and also explaining my limits and availability to him as his case worker. 9.The two decision making process would be to keep Danny involved and informed and also deciding further support services that Danny may require for his wellbeing. 10.Two strategies that I would put in place would be to maintain professional boundaries with Danny and reminding Danny that the relationship is professional and only informing Danny when I would feel that it may be getting blurred for him e.g. when Danny might expect me to act as his friend. I would also avoid any conflict of interest and as his case manager I will have to familiarise myself with the agencies code of conduct in order to use it as a guide line to establish a relationship with Danny. I will have to be mindful of my behaviour such as the use of my language and taking the right actions to contact Danny outside of work hours. 11.Two key concerns that I need to consider is the location of the programs or services and if it is located in Danny’s community and if the stakeholders are suited for Danny’s needs and if Danny is motivated enough to do it. 12.As Danny’s case worker I will inform Danny with information about the grievance process so that Danny knows what he can do if he is unhappy with the services or his case management process. Danny will also be informed about the complaint procedures and policies and if he is required to fill any kinds of paper work, and notifying Danny of how the complaints will be documented, the actions that will be taken, who will be responsible or what community will determine the outcomes and Danny’s right to appeal.

William Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet - 1004 Words

Andi Yaco Romeo and Juliet The famous story of Romeo and Juliet written by Shakespeare is the meaning of an immortal affection anecdote around two star crossed significant others, attempting to endure the tribulations of their two quarreling families, the Capulets and the Montagues. It is a story that has stood the test of time and is a strong meaning of a genuine romance story. Despite the fact that it has been told incalculable times, every time it is listened, the names Romeo and Juliet are synonymous with adoration. Each extraordinary story enraptures a crowd of people by the way it is advised to them. Two men, Franco Zeffirelli and Baz Luhrmann, recounted the tale of Romeo and Juliet through their eyes, with two totally diverse results. Franco Zeffirelli communicated his elucidation in the 1967 rendition of the film, offering life to these characters in a noteworthy movie. His motion picture turned into the position of these characters; and was genuine to what Shakespeare imagined after making this story. In 1997, Baz Luhrmann left on his adventure of telling this story, giving a totally diverse turn and cosmetic touch up to an old fantastic. He modernized it in a manner that would speak to the present day group of onlookers, with the assistance of two youthful on-screen characters, Claire Danes and Leonardo DiCaprio. There are a few similitudes and contrasts between these two motion pictures. One of the significant contrasts is that the Zeffirelli film happens inShow MoreRelatedWilliam Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet1287 Words   |  6 PagesLizzy Baginski English Composition 2 Mr. Spera March 10, 2015 Romeo and Juliet Research Paper The movie Romeo and Juliet is a modern classic film that took place in 1996. Overall this is a timeless story that everyone should go and watch. This movie has an intriguing plot line that tells the story of two feuding families, The Montagues and The Capulets, and how the children of these two different families fall in love. The two children overcome various obstacles such as hiding their chemistry fromRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet 966 Words   |  4 Pages Beauty Over Gold â€Å"Beauty provoketh thieves sooner than gold.--William Shakespeare, 1623. In his book As You Like It, William Shakespeare pointed out the supremacy of love rather than the want of gold and wealth. Truly, beauty is more important to thieves than wealth. Many of the thieves in this world would rather have an elegant woman than to obtain precious rubies. After all, what good is a prosperous man if he doesn’t have a charming woman? Two famous men grab my attention who didn’t fear forRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet Essay1024 Words   |  5 PagesRomeo and Juliet is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare early in his career about two young star-crossed lovers whose deaths ultimately reconcile their feuding families. It was among Shakespeare s most popular plays during his lifetime and, along with Hamlet, is one of his most frequently performed plays. Today, the title characters are regarded as archetypal young lovers. Romeo and Juliet belongs to a tradition of tragic romances stretching back to antiquity. The plot is based on an ItalianRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet1124 Words   |  5 PagesThe play Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare early in his career about two young star-crossed lovers whose deaths ultimately reconcile their feuding families. 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The story of two destined lovers who were killed by their own doing. But what if they weren t two destined lovers who got unlucky, but doomed partners that were never going to have a good-life to begin with.William Sha kespeare gives us a view of early signs of gang conflict in the early age of Verona, Italy. He gives us a perspective of the norms and customs of Italy during the Setting of William Shakespeare s most famous story. Romeo and Juliet, by William Shakespeare, givesRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet1616 Words   |  7 Pageslove can also cause some of life s most controversial battles. These battles could stem from lack of patience, disagreement of moral values, and in some cases, an absence of attraction overall. In Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare, the issues that drive Romeo Montague and Juliet Capulet s to each of their dreadful misfortunes are inevitable. 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Throughout the play, their actions show how ridiculous love is, and how it is a danger to anyone who become twisted in its choking grasp. However, in the death of the youth and survival of the elders, an alternative explanation for the tragic events may be found. Although Shakespeare seems to be mocking love throughout the play, itRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet1279 Words   |  6 Pagesour lives. The great, classic writers teach timeless, valuable life skills. Shakespeare was the greatest writer of all time. His writings mainly consisted of dramas and sonnets. Romeo and Juliet, as well as, A MIdsummer Night’s Dream were written about the same time period. He was able to inter relate everything that wrote. For example, the tale of Pyramus and Thisbe could possibly be an advertisement for Romeo and Juliet. The basic structure of the two dramas is the same; two forbidden lovers meet

The American Dream By Rene De Visme Williamson - 2225 Words

â€Å"If the American dream is for Americans only, it will remain our dream and never be our destiny. As Americans, we are all born with natural rights and opportunities. From a young age it is instilled in our minds that we can set a goal and nothing is out of reach.† Rene de Visme Williamson The evolution and the come about of immigrants migrating to America has transformed and expanded in a major way. Many immigrants came to America seeking greater economic opportunity, while others arrived in search of religious freedom. Other immigrants like African slaves came to America against their will. Most immigrants wanted to find the American dream, and hope for a better life. The immigrants who come to America are largely hard working, family oriented, and have a passion for the values we have. Immigrants have contributed to the economy in countless means. However a social problem has come in effect where in immigrants are being taken advantage of and are sometimes mistreated. Many people say that immigrants have a negative impact on the economy and are taking up space. The topic of immigrants and their migration is always a controversial topic. Immigration has played an important role in American history. The form of immigration goes way back to the 1600’s. The first immigrants to come to the United States arrived voluntarily from Europe during the Colonial period. Many were merchants looking to trade and people in search of religious toleration. Other groups of immigrants arrived