Impact of motivation on employee performance

Entrepreneurship is the tendency of a person to organize his own business and run it profitably, exploiting the qualities of leadership, decision making, managerial caliber, etc. Risk Talking Risk-taking In Its true sense Indicates that risk Is Ignored In taking decisions and actions. We should rightfully use the word ‘risk averse' for the entrepreneurs. Risk averseness implies taking ‘calculated' risk and expecting premium for the risk taken. As the risk goes up the expected premium in return also goes up at a higher rate.Calculated risk means a few things, namely, Determining how much risk one should take. Risk taking ability of a rich person Is higher than that of a poor person. Still, two equally rich persons In equal situations may not equally perceive the risk in a given opportunity. 0 Risk assessment is equally important. 0 Risk mitigation is the final step that a risk-averse person would consider while taking calculated risk. Risk mitigation means taking steps to manage risk. For example, Insurance against non-business Is essential; Identify non-business risks and insure them. Sense of limits In every society people develop sense of limits from parents, friends and rounding's. These are the limits of what we can do and what we cannot, and what we can accomplish and what we cannot. Such sense of limit Is a result of social permissiveness at a given point of time In a society. On one side, developing such sense of limit is desirable because without adhering to social norms a society cannot function as a civilized society. On the other, the same sense of limit would impose more ‘don't' than ‘dos'. Entrepreneurs are different. Hem do not abide by the limits recognized by the society or they fight against these limits. CLC Locus of control There are two types of people in the world- (I) those who blame others and external situations for whatever happens with them, and those who believe that they could have done something better to avo id certain situations that happened with them. The first type of behavior of people is called ‘external locus of control' and the second ‘Internal locus of control'. It Is obvious from the definition that entrepreneurs have ‘Internal locus of control'.The sense of Internal locus of control gives tremendous to learn from failures rather than accepting fate. 0 Control of future Entrepreneurs are always in control of the situation. Their responses to the unfolding situations are more matured rather than like reactions. This gives them control over the current period as well as the future. Creators Entrepreneurs create ideas, businesses and organizations. Often they like businesses that are unique compared to the routine ones. They like challenges and deal with them in a unique or creative way.Entrepreneurs are good at startups. Need for achievement We would like to include one more characteristic over what Hofmann listed; and that is entrepreneur's need for achievemen t. Entrepreneurs do not start business for making money. Money and profits are not his primary goals. Their passion, thus, is to convert their dreams into reality. 0 Ethics This is yet another characteristic that Hofmann did not discuss. Can anything substitute ethics for a successful person? Can an entrepreneur be unethical and still make long-term success and attain his need for attainment?A true entrepreneur, since he is not driven by motives of profits but needs to achieve or do something different for getting sense of satisfaction, will demonstrate high degree of business ethics. Ethical game is necessary for a long-term player in the business of innovation. Q. 2†¦.. Business plan is a written description of the business. It is comprehensive in nature and comprises details like promoters, existing and proposed products and/or services, know-how and techniques intended to use, among others. A brief description of contents of business plan. Description of venture: For an exi sting business, the details like date of establishment, Journey over time with significant milestones, employee data, sales and profit data over time (if history is too long then selected period of say, five years' tat would be enough), organization structure, operating philosophy, vision and mission statements, and details of enabling factors are important. 0 Operations plan: Several operations have to be carried out with a view to succeed in providing products and services.The business activity must be clearly broken down into the discreet operations and details must be provided how those operations will be performed given the resources. If the operations plan fail then production plan would also automatically fail. 0 Production plan: In case of manufacturing activity, the details of technology and its ministrations, success factors, realistic assumptions regarding utilization of plant capacity supported with evidences from other businesses, processes, manpower of material and sev eral other details that can have an impact on production would become an essential part of production plan. Organizational plan: In the absence of strong organizational backing the most lucrative business can also fail measurably. Business operates in a very dynamic environment, whether internal or external. A business organization must develop capability of capturing information regarding the changing external variable that may effect the current business or future opportunities of the business. Marketing plan: A business needs to define a market in terms of geographical area or demographic details of potential customers or consumers.Market feasibility report would help in identifying the scope of business opportunity, and from that canvass, a businessman has to determine the right segment of market wherein he would like to do business. Promotion plan, distribution network and other marketing policies are useful in evaluating the potential market for the goods and services offered by the business. Financial plan: The contents of the business plan are now converted into the financial numbers to present the financial plan.The financial plan gives income statements and balance-sheets for the projected period, depreciation schedule, interest payment schedule, working capital schedule, disability schedule, cash flow statements, working capital financing schedule and schedule of funds to be raised and serviced. The financial plan also includes calculation of several ratios that are useful in the evaluation of funding options. 0 Assessment of risks: The production and marketing plans are usually prepared on he most realistic scenario.If actual scenario turns out to be better than anticipated (sales price is higher, sales quality is higher, expenses are lower, among others), then there is a positive surplus profit. But what if things do not turn out as good as estimates and cost of project goes up, cost of capital is higher, enough capital is not available, sales pri ce remain low, sales quantity is less, expenses are higher, skilled people are not available, among others. The assessment of down-side impact of risk must be assessed, if not upside reward of risk. Q. 3†¦ Answer†¦..Marketing is a function over which we can have only an influencing power but hardly any control over the outcome. Therefore, marketing function is very important especially for a new enterprise. The market analysis is done before a business plan is prepared and it is included in the business plan, I. E. , at the project phase of a proposed business. Market Assessment base, primarily aimed at checking whether there is gap between demand and supply if the product or service that will be offered by the entrepreneur is an existing product with or without modifications.In case of a new product, the market assessment at time is Just an informed evaluation of potential market. Market assessment aims at defining the market that would be most appropriate for the product and that would give strongest opportunity for the long-term growth. This involves matching the product with customer needs. This strategy of defining the market segment for you is derived from customer research and competitive analysis. 0 Impact of Market Dynamics An entrepreneur must understand the market dynamics. Conceptually, demand and supply determine the price.Demand and supply constantly change and, therefore, pricing mechanism becomes dynamic, which is called market dynamics. Several factors play a role in affecting supply and demand and thereby, the prices of products. Competitors' price, income level, employment level, inflation, production level, government policies and a host of other factors individually and collectively affect the pricing of a product. 0 Achieving Market Acceptance The proof of success is finally in attaining the sales level at profitable conditions. The essence of it is in achieving market acceptance of products and services.Start-ups eave a greater risk in achieving market acceptance than the firms already in business. However, for the existing business too market acceptance of a new product is risky. 0 Day-to-Day Operation There are several aspects of day-to-day operations. Procurement, storage, production, transportation, inventory holding, sales, collections, maintenance, man-management and several other functions together can make operations possible. In today's world, management of information technology is also a matter of daily operations. However, we will discuss only two important aspects of day to- day operations here.They are namely, (I) procurement of material-inventory and (it) use of information technology. Strategies for Growth The issue of growth is strategic in nature, therefore, it involve strategic thinking, and hence, application of SOOT analysis. A SOOT analysis model must suit the need for answering a particular question, which is related to either direction of growth or rate of growth or strategy for gr owth. Strategic models are described and their applications are explained in each of these fields of strategic decisions in the following sections of this unit.Growth Direction Decision Synergy is the measure of an effect on the net benefits of combining more than one activity. Synergy is said to exist when the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. The presence of some strength and its best fit with available opportunities are essential for creating a positive synergy. For the growth direction issue the synergy is searched in the areas of product and market. A SOOT analysis on these two parameters can give a quick idea about the value creating growth alternatives.

Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind essays

Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind essays Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind As an entertainment medium the feature film has advanced exponentially over the last 150 years .The advent of sound and later color have made the feature film an ever more immersing experience. Now the dawning of the era of digitalisation and seemingly endless possibilities in the realm of computer special effects complicate the auteurs struggle to produce a successful film. They must break through mediocrity to achieve critical and public acclaim. Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind is a successful film both critically praised and well received by the public although largely unnoticed in comparison to the mammoth of a Hollywood blockbuster. From what basis then shall one measure a film to be successful? Its merits as a piece of artistic expression or its popularity? Eternal Sunshine doesnt rely heavily on modern computer effects and rather opts to minimize computer usage in place of clever camera wizardry. Italian director Michel Gandrys vision involved the use of longer takes and an eccentric narrative straying from generic conventions. Joel and Clementines relationship is romantic film territory and the themes of memory and technology stock sci-fi staples. The appeal of most modern blockbusters lies in the overblown budget and photo-perfect special effects. A true example of style over substance, spectacle often distracts or takes prevalence to the quality of narrative. However with Eternal Sunshine Gondry holds the reigns of balance, managing to deliver a surrealistic cinematic delight while keeping his direction true to the requirements of the plot. Joel and Clementines relationship is still the focus of his movie and the dreamy world created by Joels memories doesnt diverge from but rather consolidates their fractured relationship through Joels interactions with Clem in his mind. His m...

Non Verbal Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Non Verbal Communication - Essay Example Examples of non-verbal communication are with the inclusion of eye contact, vocal nuance, gestures, intonation, facial expressions, proximity, glance, smell, posture, and sounds among others. From a broader perspective non-verbal language is divided into two kinds. These are; those non-verbal messages that are generated from the body and the non-verbal messages that emanate from the broad setting like space, time and silence. This communication form is a major factor of the vital factors of communication and it is highly essential in high-context cultures. (andrews.edu, 2011) Merits of Non-verbal Communication Applications of this communication kind are numerous and several are mentioned in this aforementioned website. These include the use of non-verbal communication to accent verbal messages, repeat verbal messages, regulate interactions, substitute verbal messages, and complement verbal messages. Accenting may refer to the utilisation of non-verbal communication like verbal tones. One can repeat verbal messages in a non-verbal way like frowning to show disgust. Regulation of interactions may refer to the scenario where non-verbal cues may be used to indicate to a person when they should speak or stop speaking. Substituting of verbal communication may applicable in situations like a noisy environment that blocks verbal communication resulting to usage of gestures to pass on messages. Lastly, complementing may be a situation like the usage of hand gestures to stress points that have been communicated verbally. (andrews.edu, 2011) Non-verbal communication is very vital. In actual sense it came into use before verbal communication. It is actually referred to as silent type of language which is normally not formally taught and which came into existence way before the invention of language. It is a universal kind of communication, though it may differ with certain cultures, apart from the persons that are autistic. According to Calero, in his book, non-verbal comm unication was in use way before the invention of formal spoken languages. In fact he puts it as thousands of years. Despite the fact that this form of communication has not had a lot of researchers interest, it has been in use by many populations across the globe as way of communicating attitudes, thoughts, notions and emotions. Despite its having been a major form of communication in the world for a long time, people have not taken time to research on the meanings portrayed by this form of communication as Calero puts it in his book. (Calero, 2005 pp1, 2) Non-verbal communication is very important in every day’s communication. Most people consider it as a form of distinct speech and that it is basically applied in the passing of the message of interpersonal relationships and emotion. Thus, it can be said to speak louder than words. However, it is very essential to note the fact that non-verbal communication has to go in tandem with speech or verbal forms of communication. Th ey cannot generally be separated, but artificially it is a possibility. By artificially, it means that use of non-verbal communication like gestures (such as hand gestures) may also be viewed as the usage of words as audible ways of sending messages. Non-verbal communication is, therefore, seen as a very integral part of the normal natural language that humans use. (nortonmedia.com, 2011) Negativities of Using Non-verbal Communication Various forms of non-verbal com

PROJECT and investment report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

PROJECT and investment report - Essay Example This trend is majorly visible in China. In India, although there are strong government regulations against the practice of consuming wine, the young generation of the country are increasingly showing greater interest towards wine drinking. This paper presents a comparative study of the social-economic, political and financial conditions of two countries, India and China. Based on the information revealed, a particular country is chosen in which an Australian wine producing firm might invest for making international expansion. 2. Market Research Market size and potential growth Country China India Potential demand Drinking wine is one of the oldest traditions in China. This tradition can be dated as long as 5000 years back in the history of the country to. Brewing was a dominant industry in China. Wine made from food grains (such as rice) and grapes are the most favourite drinks for the people of China. This shows that the potential demand for wine in the country is quite high. Recent studies reveal that wine consumption by the population of China is showing an increasing trend over the period of last ten years. According to various researchers, consumption of wine by the Chinese would almost become double of the current figure (UPENN, 2012). Pattern of changes in the society as well as the economy has been the major thrust behind the changing trends in wine consumption in China. The market for wine in India is changing. The rise of the retail industry and the growing middle class in India acts as a catalyst to the growth of wine industry in the country. According to recent research, wine consumption in India reflects tremendous growth since the beginning of the 21st century. Wine market in India has increased by almost 30 percent between 2003 and 2010. As a result of globalization, India has been exposed to western culture. The middle class in the country is fast accepting and adapting to the western fashion. Although India does not have a heritage of drinking wine, practice of wine consumption is increasing, particularly, in social occasions. In the past, only the males in elite class used to patronize wine drinking culture. However, presently, the high income middle class is gradually becoming a loyal customer base for wine sellers. Costs Cost of the product is determined by the cost of the raw material used in the production of the good and cost of other inputs. Grapes are one of the major ingredients used in wine production. China has grape vines covering 1.25 million acres. Half of the produce is dedicated for the production of wine (G. G. Brostrom and J. Brostrom, 2008). Since there is adequate availability of grapes in China and cheap labour is also available, costs of producing wine in China is not very high. In India, the government protects the domestic wine industry against competition from foreign producers. Although cheap labour is available in abundance, other ingredients, such as grapes, are costly. This makes cost of produ cing quality wine quite high in India. Sellers often discriminate among the target customers with regard to pricing policies. While prices of certain products are lowered to attract more customers, while prices of premium brands are kept high. The premium products are generally consumed by the rich customers, who have a taste for wine developed through consuming wine over a long period of time. Degree of competitiveness China is emerging as a super market for global

Physics lab A Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Physics A - Lab Report Example Then timing of 50 oscillations followed together with recording of the attained results. Second step entailed repetition of the initial step but with varying lengths (0.8m, 1.0m, 1.2m, 1.4m and 1.6m) coupled with recording oscillations after every 25 vibrations instead of 50 as it was in the first procedure. This experiment entailed hanging the spring instead of string from the support with varying masses at its base (0.1kg, 0.2kg, 0.3kg, 0.4kg and 0.5kg). Then displacing each mass in turn from their middle positions, measuring their displacements and tabulating them in a table. The application of these experiments is immensely in the fabrication sectors where engineers construct diverse models to come up with refined designs meant to construct real machines and objects. This is to minimize losses, which could have occurred if the specialists ignored small tests in determining how the real design will

Summary and strong respond Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Summary and strong respond - Essay Example Several states have been on the move to completely do away with the use of the death penalty while in other states actions have been taken to limit its use. For example, The United States is one country where use of the death penalty has been highly controversial and greatly debated (Walker 10). Capital punishment has no confirmable preventive effect but in real sense, it has caused loss of life, and this may contribute to a cycle of violence that raises murder rates. This loss is brought about when a person kills another, the convicted person is killed, and this shows how the death penalty is costly more than keeping convicted murderers in prison for life. There has been a number of cases where innocent people have been condemned wrongfully due to lack of enough evidence. This has led to several innocent people being executed because there has been no standard guidelines regarding which criminal would receive a death sentence. Defendants who were poor, a member of a minority group, uneducated, or mentally ill received the death penalty more often than those who did not fit these characteristics (Walker 12). In the past, some states allowed the capital punishment for crimes such as rape, criminal assault, kidnapping, forgery, concealing the death or birth of an infant, and arson. Each state has the death penalty that is used in cases of the first murder degree. This system of capital punishment entrenches different states to be obsessed with killing people. It teaches the lesson that some people may kill others willfully, deliberately, and with premeditation as long as they are the right people doing it for the right reasons in the rig ht manner ( Bedau 10). It is true that such killings as a punishment are not necessary, since there are several well established alternative methods of punishment including long-term imprisonment that is used by most states worldwide. Those who argue for the capital

Type 2 diabetes mellitus

Type 2 diabetes mellitus Discuss the possible role of psychological factors throughout the course of an illness: Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Health psychology is a topical development in the integration of biomedical and social sciences in health care. It addresses the role of psychological factors in the cause, progression, and outcome of health and illness (Ogden, 2007). Psychological theories can guide health education and promotion, and offer the health care practitioner a structured approach to understanding and meeting the health needs of health and social care service users (Morrison and Bennett, 2009). The appraisal of health psychology models can assist practitioners in evaluating their contribution to service users understanding of health, behaviours relating to health and the practice of health care. Appraisal and evaluation enable health care workers to apply psychological models and theories when analysing aspects of health and behaviour relevant to practice (Marks et al, 2005). The ethos of health psychology is that of treating the ‘whole person, not just the physical adaptations that transpire associated with illness. This might embrace behaviour change, urging modifications in beliefs, and coping strategies, and acquiescence with medical advice. As the ‘whole self is treated, the individual becomes to a certain extent responsible for their treatment. For example, an individual may have a responsibility to take medication, and to change beliefs and behaviour. Therefore, the individual is no longer seen as a victim. From this viewpoint, health and illness are on a continuum. Instead of being either healthy or ill, individuals may move on along a continuum from healthiness to illness and back again. Health psychology also argues that the mind and body act together. It perceives psychological issues as not only potential effects of illness, but as adding to all the phases of health, from maximum healthiness to illness (Morrison and Bennett, 2009). Health psychology is concerned primarily with intrinsic factors, especially individual perceptions of health-related behaviour. Health behaviour, defined as behaviour related to health status, is becoming increasingly important. Public health policy has increased the emphasis on individual responsibility and choice and because of this; there is a corresponding need to improve understanding of individual motivations that affect those choices and health-related behaviours (Marks et al, 2005). The health behaviours studied by psychologists are varied, but the most commonly studied health behaviours have immediate or long-term implications for individual health, and are partially within the control of the individual (Ogden, 2007). Type 2 diabetes, formerly known as non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus, is a serious and progressive disease. It is chronic in nature and has no known cure. It is the fourth most common cause of death in most developed countries (UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group, 1998a). Although no exact figures are available, it has been suggested that by the year 2010 there would be 3.5 million people with diabetes in the United Kingdom (UK). However, approximately 750,000 of the estimated number may be undiagnosed (Diabetes UK, 2008a). Diabetes UK campaigns to raise awareness of type 2 diabetes because if left undiagnosed, the condition can result in long-term complications such as retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy, and an increased risk of myocardial infarction and stroke. The total number of people with diabetes has increased by 75% over the last six years and the incidence in the UK is escalating at a faster rate than in the United States (Gonzà ¡lez et al,2009). There is a higher incidence of type 2 diabetes in people with South Asian or African descent (Department of Health, 2007). One of the reasons for this is thought to be that these ethnic groups have increased insulin resistance. Signs of type 2 diabetes are already present in UK children of South Asian and African-Caribbean origin at ten years of age, according to research funded jointly by the British Heart Foundation and the Wellcome Trust (Whincup et al,2010). The prevalence of type 2 diabetes increases with age to as much as one in ten in those aged 65 years. The lifetime risk of developing the condition in the UK is greater than 10% (Leese, 1991). Diabetes-related complications can have a major effect on the individual and family members, and are costly to the patient. A study undertaken by Bottomley (2001) examined the costs of living of patients with diabetes complications, including taking time off work and transport costs for hospital appointments. The study showed that the cost of treating someone with type 2 diabetes with microvascular and macrovascular complications was  £5,132 compared to  £920 for someone who does not have diabetes-related complications (Bottomley 2001). This also has implications for the National Health Service (NHS) in terms of the financial burden of managing and treating the condition and the use of resources. It has been estimated that the cost of treating diabetes nationally adds up to approximately 9% of the NHS annual budget, although most of that is used to treat associated long-term complications, such as kidney failure, blindness, amputations and organ transplantation, rather than the provision of medication (Bottomley, 2001). With regard to type 2 diabetes, psychological theories and models have a long history of informing attempts to change behaviour and improve emotional well-being. Over recent years, many clinical guidelines in the UK by the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) have included recommendations for psychological interventions for long-term conditions. Evidence-based recommendations have been made not only for the treatment of associated mental health problems such as depression and anxiety (NICE, 2009; NICE, 2004) but also for physical health conditions such as obesity (NICE, 2007) and changing behaviour related to public health issues such as smoking and lack of exercise (NICE; 2007). The aim of this essay is to explore the psychological implications for a person suffering from type 2 diabetes and others involved in the experience of that illness. Type 2 diabetes, is caused as the result of reduced secretion of insulin and to peripheral resistance to the action of insulin; that is, the insulin in the body does not have its usual biological effect. It can often be controlled by diet and exercise when first diagnosed, but many patients require oral hypoglycaemic agents or insulin in order to maintain satisfactory glycaemic control and prevent the complications of diabetes (Diabetes UK, 2008a). To reduce the risk of long-term complications, both macrovascular and microvascular, people with type 2 diabetes need access to appropriate, individualised education, which informs them about the risks associated with the condition. Information relating to lifestyle changes such as healthy eating, increasing activity levels, and smoking cessation are vital (Diabetes UK, 2008a). Some people accept their diagnosis of diabetes and all that this means, and manage to adapt to their new lifestyle, but others find it difficult. Changes will need to be made to the type of food they eat, the amount they eat of particular foods and perhaps to the time at which they eat their meals. As a consequence of the required changes to lifestyle, it is not surprising that many people need some professional psychological support (Diabetes UK, 2008a). Diabetes may have an impact on peoples careers, driving, and insurance policies (life, driving, and travel). Difficulties surrounding holidays, work or travel abroad may prove insurmountable without support. People with diabetes who are also caring for others, for example children or elderly relatives, may find it very difficult to put themselves first (Diabetes UK, 2008a). Some people who have been diagnosed as having diabetes feel that they have been condemned to a life where everything has to be planned. There are, however, support networks available. For example Diabetes UK, a charity that supports people with diabetes, their families and the health professionals who care for them, has local and regional branches where people can meet and discuss problems and learn from each other how they manage their day-to-day-life (Diabetes UK, 2008a). The majority of people with type 2 diabetes are insulin resistant. Obesity exacerbates insulin resistance. As many as 80% of people with type 2 diabetes are obese at the time of diagnosis (Marks, 1996). Weight loss not only improves insulin resistance, but also lowers blood glucose, lipid levels, and blood pressure. Cardiovascular disease is often present in people with type 2 diabetes. The presence of insulin resistance accelerates atherosclerosis, leading to macrovascular complications such as myocardial infarction, stroke, and peripheral vascular disease. The mechanisms responsible for this are thought to be hyperinsulinaemia, dyslipidaemia and hypertension (Garber, 1998). However, microvascular problems such as retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy still occur. The mechanism responsible is thought to be hyperglycaemia (Garber, 1998). Therefore, good blood glucose control is of crucial importance. Although the prognosis for people with type 2 diabetes mellitus is less than favourable, evidence has shown that making major lifestyle changes, such as having a healthy diet, smoking cessation, and increasing activity levels, can reduce the risk of long-term complications (UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group, 1998a). However, using the threat of long-term complications as a means of inducing lifestyle or behaviour changes has not proved to have any prolonged beneficial effect (Polonsky, 1999). Continued support and appropriate education is required to empower individuals to take charge of their condition and make appropriate and timely therapeutic decisions. The healthcare professional and the individual must decide on the most appropriate treatment regimen to provide optimum care and the best medical outcome (Marks et al, 2005). NICE published a document in 2008 entitled ‘CG66: Type 2 diabetes which recommended that all people with diabetes should be offered structured educat ion, provided by a trained specialist team of healthcare professionals (NICE, 2008). The utilisation of theoretical health psychology models can assist these specialist team practitioner in empowering individuals with type 2 diabetes to contemplate and instigate the changes in lifestyle behaviours such as smoking, lack of exercise and unhealthy eating habits that have adverse consequences on long-term health outcomes. With regard to health psychology, as previously mentioned, health psychology is concerned primarily with intrinsic factors, especially individual perceptions of health-related behaviour. Attributing health-related behaviours to internal or external factors has been discussed in relation to the concept of a health locus of control. Individuals differ as to whether they regard events as controllable by them (an internal locus of control) or uncontrollable by them (an external locus of control) (Ogden, 2007). Accessing diabetes related health services for testing or treatment could be viewed from either perspective. The healthcare professional is perceived to be a powerful individual who can diagnose and treat diabetes (external); however, by accessing services the individual is taking responsibility for determining their own health status (internal). It is useful for the healthcare practitioner to consider that in attending diabetic health services the individual has made an initial st ep in taking control of their own health needs (Marks et al, 2005). Individuals with an internal locus of control are more likely to act in concordance with advice from a health professional than those with an external locus of control (Ogden, 2007). Knowing this can assist practitioners in their communication style with individuals who have type 2 diabetes. Identifying the specific needs of the individual, by understanding their locus of control, can help the healthcare practitioner to tailor the assessment (Marks et al, 2005). When an individual has a sense of responsibility for actions or behaviours that exposed them to a potential risk of diabetic complications, the practitioner can work on exploring the circumstances that surrounded those behaviours. The individual may already feel motivated to change these circumstances. In the case of a client who does not recognise that their own behaviour or actions were a contributory factor in posing a risk of behaviour related complications, the practitioner should focus on developing the individuals leve l of awareness to shift their locus of control from the external to the internal. For example, the individual who perceives that taking responsibility for healthy eating use is always that of their partner (Ogden, 2007). Self-management for chronic illnesses such as type 2 diabetes requires adherence to treatment regimens and behavioural change, as well as the acquisition of new coping strategies, because symptoms have a great effect on many areas of life (Glasgow, 1991; Kravitz et al,1993). For many individuals, optimum self-management is often difficult to achieve, as indicated by poor rates of adherence to treatment, reduced quality of life, and poor psychological wellbeing, effects that are frequently reported in several chronic illnesses (Rubin and Peyrot, 1999). Self-management interventions aim to enable individuals to take control of their condition and be actively involved in management and treatment choices. In the 1980s, psychological theory was applied to develop theoretical models and their constructs have had a particular effect on the development of self-management interventions. The Health Belief Model (Becker 1974) defines two related appraisal processes undertaken by the healthcare practitioner in partnership with an individual: the threat of illness and the behavioural response to that threat. Threat appraisal involves consideration of the individuals perceived susceptibility to an illness and its anticipated severity. Behavioural response involves considering the costs and benefits of engaging in behaviours likely to reduce the threat of disease. It can be useful for the healthcare practitioner to establish the clients perception of risk and implications of their adverse health behaviours when discussing the reasons for healthy eating, increasing exercise, and smoking cessation. It is also important to discuss the likely impact of diabetes on the individuals lifestyle and behaviour (Marks et al, 2005). The Health Belief Model can be applied to evaluate the risk of lifestyle changes. The healthcare professional can initiate structured discussion with the individual to identify their educational needs, particularly around developing a realistic understanding of risk factors associated with diabetes and unhealthy eating habits, lack of exercise and smoking. It is important for the healthcare practitioner to discuss the efficacy of changes in the above in prevention of diabetic complications, while discussing other methods of behaviour modification in context (Marks et al, 2005). It is also important to establish that the individual feels confident in the practicalities of and behavioural change. Therefore, the healthcare practitioner must support the diabetic in behaviour change by giving practical health education advice on the issues of healthy eating, the benefits of exercise and the importance of giving up smoking (Marks et al, 2005). The Protection Motivation Theory (Rogers 1975, 1983) expands the Health Belief Model to include four components that predict behavioural intentions to improve health-related behaviour, or intention to modify behaviour. These include self-efficacy, responsive effectiveness, severity, and vulnerability. In social cognitive theory, behaviour is thought to be affected by expectations, with individuals confidence in their ability to perform a given behaviour (self-efficacy) particularly important (Bandura, 1992). Therefore, self-efficacy can be said to be the belief in ones ability to control personal actions (Bandura, 1992), and is comparable with the concept of internal locus of control. It is based on past experience and evokes behaviour concordant with an individuals capabilities. Self-efficacy is distinct from unrealistic optimism and does not elicit unreasonable risk-taking (Ogden, 2007). Within the context of smoking and diabetes, an example of self-efficacy might be, ‘I am c onfident that I can take responsibility for protecting myself from increasing the risk of further complications by giving up smoking. This concept has been used in self-management interventions through the teaching of skills, such as problem solving and goal setting, to increase self-efficacy. Again, in type 2 diabetes, this could mean the acquisition of knowledge relating to healthy eating principles and putting that knowledge into practice by avoiding foods that would make the blood glucose rise quickly. The goal would be to incorporate this behaviour into daily life on a long-term basis (Marks et al, 2005). Behavioural intention can also be predicted by severity, for example: ‘Diabetes will have serious implications for my health and lifestyle, but conversely, ‘Good blood glucose control will decrease the risk of diabetic complications. The fourth predictor of behavioural intention is vulnerability, which in the context of diabetes may be the likelihood of cardiovascular disease or diabetic retinopathy occurring. Rogers (1983) later suggested a fifth component of fear in response to education or information as a predictor of behavioural intention. The concepts of severity, vulnerability, and fear outlined in Protection Motivation Theory relate to the concept of threat appraisal, as discussed in the context of the Health Belief Model. Self-efficacy and response effectiveness, on the other hand, relate to the individuals coping response, which is the behaviour intention. If a person has self-efficacy and perceives benefits in taking control of their actions (response effectiveness), they are likely to have the intention to modify their behaviour to reduce health risks (Ogden, 2007). Information or education that influences an individuals emotional response can be environmental (external influence, such as advice from a health professional), or interpersonal (relating directly to past experience). Information and education contribute to an individuals self-efficacy. This in turn helps develop a robust internal locus of control and will inform and/or contribute to the individuals coping response (Marks et al, 2005). The coping res ponse is considered to be adaptive (positive behavioural intention) or maladaptive (avoidance or denial). Assessment of the individuals capacity to understand and apply information and to have an adaptive response is a vital skill of the health professional. A maladaptive coping response, such as the denial of identified risk factors, has potentially serious consequences for the health of the individual (Marks et al, 2005). Successful implementation of the Protection Motivation Model can enable informed choice and empower the individual to take personal responsibility and control of behaviours influencing their health (Morrison and Bennett, 2009). Skilled questioning and the use of checking skills by the healthcare professional following information-giving are important to evaluate the benefit, if any, to the individual with diabetes (Ogden, 2007). Readiness to change is a concept derived from Prochaska and DiClementes (1983) transtheoretical model. It refers to how prepared or ready individuals are to make changes to their behaviour. Interventions guided by this theory focus on individuals motivation to change and the approach is adapted according to differences in participants motivation to change behaviour. Success is achieved only when the individual is ready to take on the actions needed to change behaviour. An individual may know that smoking and type 2 diabetes are not a good combination. However, unless the person is ready to quit smoking, no amount of discussion with a healthcare professional will change the persons decision to continue smoking. Establishing an internal motivator is a good first step to assessing an individuals readiness to change, however, an individual also needs to feel that the time is right and that they are prepared to change. Readiness to change can be assessed by asking individuals, as soon as the potential problem is identified, whether they have ever attempted to change the behaviour before. Six stages of change were identified in Prochaska and DiClementes (1983) Transtheoretical model of behaviour change: Pre-contemplation; Contemplation; Preparation; Action; Maintenance and Relapse. Most people (around 60%) will be at the pre-contemplation stage when they are identified by the healthcare practitioner and will generally react in a closed way to the idea of change (Prochaska and Goldstein, 1991). They may be rebellious to the idea, they may rationalise their current behaviour or be resigned to it, or they may be reluctant to consider the possibility of change (Prochaska and Goldstein, 1991). In this situation, it is tempting to push people into making an attempt at behaviour change using their health as a motivator or by making them feel guilty. However, this is likely to prompt the individual to either lie about their behaviour or avoid the nurse completely. During the contemplation phase, it is suggested that individuals who are starting to consider change look for information about their current and proposed behaviours, and analyse the risks involved in changing or maintaining their current behaviour. The most appropriate action is to ask the individual to form alise the analytical process by undertaking a decisional balance exercise (Health Education Authority (HEA), 1996). In this exercise the person is asked to consider the positive and negative implications of maintaining or changing their behaviour. The individual then decides whether maintaining or changing the behaviour will give them increased positive outcomes, and if they are willing to attempt the change. To be at the preparation stage, individuals need to believe that their behaviour is causing a problem, that their health or wellbeing will improve if they change the behaviour, and that they have a good chance of success (Prochaska and Goldstein, 1991). Once the healthcare practitioner establishes that the individual has an internal motivator and is ready to make an attempt at behaviour change, a supportive treatment plan is needed. Individuals who are in the process of behaviour change, or who have achieved and are maintaining the new behaviour, need help to avoid relapse (Pro chaska and Goldstein, 1991). The most effective way to do this is to ask the individual to reflect on their experiences so far. Apart from taking into account the management behavioural change for those with type 2 diabetes, it is also of vital importance that there is a consideration the emotional impact of a diabetes diagnosis and living with the condition. How patients feel when presented with the diagnosis of a chronic illness such as diabetes can have an enormous impact on their lives, and on their ability to make emotional adjustments to the disease itself (Marks et al, 2005). Research has found that that the diagnosis of a chronic illness can have a strong emotional impact on individuals, with reactions of grief, denial and depression. The emotional aspects of developing and coping with diabetes can affect overall control of the disease profoundly. Similarly, these feeling may form a barrier to effective listening and learning during the consultation process and any future self-management strategies. Therefore, it is proposed that this should be taken into consideration when developing educational prog rammes and protocols for people with diabetes (Thoolen et al, 2008). Coping and adapting to a long-term chronic illness is a major theme in health psychology (Ogden, 2007). Leventhal Nerenz (1985) propose that individuals have their own common sense beliefs about their illness. These include identity: diagnosis (diabetes) and symptoms (elevated blood sugar levels, excessive hunger and excessive thirst). Perceived cause of illness: stress, a virus, unhealthy lifestyle. Time line: acute or chronic. Consequences: physical (pain, mobility problems) and emotional (lack of social contact, anxiety). Cure and control: for example by taking medication or getting plenty of rest. With regard to adapting to an illness such as diabetes, the stress coping model of Lazarus and Folkman (1984) Transactional model of stress is the concept that is most widely utilised. The model suggests that there are key factors in adaptation to chronic illness, disease-specific coping efforts, changes in illness representation over time, interaction between psychological reality of disease and affective response, procedures for coping with the disease and interaction with context. The stress coping model (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984) emphasises the value of coping strategies to deal with a particular condition. Self-management strategies based on this model attempt to improve the individuals coping strategies. In type 2 diabetes, people are faced with the prospect of long-term complications caused by the condition. If people are aware of these possibilities and also that successful treatment is, available it makes a diagnosis of such problems less daunting. However, there are limitations to this model. It is debated that it is a frame of reference, not a theory that ignores specific features of the illness. The situation dimension poorly represented and it is not specific. The model also neglects interactions with context (e.g. social support, other life events) and offers no account of life goals on illness representation and coping (Ogden, 2007). It is of vital importance that stress is controlled and managed in an individual with type 2 diabetes. Research has shown a link between stress as a causal factor and that stress has been found to be a factor in regulation of blood glucose regulation. Sepa et al (2005) found that family stress has a significant impact on the and development of diabetes among infants. With regard to stress and metabolic control, research has found that stressful life events predict poor glucose control. In a study by Surwit et al, (2002) the management of stress was found to improve glucose control. Therefore, it is posited that the impact of stress can affect diabetes adversely and any interventions to manage stress may be a worthwhile component of diabetes education programs. An additional influence on coping and adapting to living with diabetes and the development of self-management strategies has come from clinical psychology, particularly Cognitive Behavioural Therapies (CBT). Central to these therapies is the importance of attempting to change how people think about their illness and themselves, and how their thoughts affect their behaviour. Depression is one of the most common psychological problems among individuals with diabetes, and is associated with worse treatment adherence and clinical outcomes (Gonzalez et al, 2010). A randomised controlled trial (RCT) undertaken by Lustman et al, (2008) found that the percentage of patients achieving remission of depression was greater in the CBT group than in the control group. Although the research found that there was no difference in the mean glycosylated haemoglobin levels of the groups post-treatment, follow-up mean glycosylated haemoglobin levels were significantly better in the CBT group than in the control group. Therefore, it is debated that the combination of CBT and supportive diabetes education is an effective non-pharmacologic treatment for major depression in patients with type 2 diabetes. It may also be associated with improved glycaemic control. It is important to note however, that certain limitation apply to the above study that may have an effect on the findings. The generalizability of the findings is uncertain. The study was limited to a relatively small number of patients. Similarly, the follow-up interval was limited to the 6 months immediately after treatment. Likewise, the researcher cannot exclude the possibility that CBT and diabetes education interacted in a way that potentiated antidepressant effectiveness; analogous interactions may have occurred in many clinical trials. Further studies comparing CBT and diabetes education, individually and in combination, are needed to answer such questions and to see whether successful CBT alone is sufficient to produce glycaemic improvement. Correspondingly, it is worth noting that patients in the CBT group had education almost a full year longer than controls. The difference in education was not statistically significant, but the extra educational experience may have contributed to improved outcome in the CBT group. Finally, treatment was administered by a single psychologist experienced in the use of CBT. Whether treatment would be as effective when administered by other therapists is uncertain. For any person with type 2 diabetes to engage in any self-management strategy, good mental health is necessary. However, studies have shown reduced self-worth and/or anxiety in more than 40% of people with diabetes (Anderson et al,2001). There are several possible reasons for this. Being diagnosed with diabetes immediately poses major concerns for the individual, including what the future holds in terms of health, finance, and family relationships. Although everyone deals with diagnosis differently, for some it can cause immediate stress, including feelings of shock or guilt. Some individuals may also be ashamed and want to keep the diagnosis a secret. Others may be relieved to know what is causing the symptoms they have been experiencing. An Audit Commission (2000) report acknowledged that: people with diabetes are more likely to suffer from clinical depression than those in the general population. The report then went on to specify that therefore, diabetes services should make expl icit provision for psychological support and should monitor the psychological outcomes of care. In conclusion, to be successful in changing behaviour to negate the complications of type 2 diabetes, individuals need to decide for themselves which behaviours are undesirable, that is, which behaviours could have negative health, financial, social or psychological implications. People with diabetes also need to feel that the negative impact of risky health behaviours will be reduced or altered if they change their behaviour. It is important that individuals have confidence in their ability to make and maintain behavioural changes. It is not the health practitioners role to make this judgement or impose his or her beliefs. To support behavioural change, healthcare professionals need to feel comfortable in discussing lifestyle behaviours. They also need to assess an individuals preparedness to make a change and identify the factors that motivate them to change. The application of health psychology models, such as the Health Belief Model, the Protection Motivation Theory and the Trans theoretical model of behaviour change, to the management process can enable healthcare practitioners to assess contributory factors to health behaviours. Applying models can also help to identify motivators and barriers to health-improving and health-protecting behaviours, and identify strategies which assist the person in behavioural change. The role of the healthcare professional is to enable individuals to make an informed choice by working in partnership with them to decide when and if behaviour change is desirable. By understanding how an individual copes and adapts to living with a long-term condition such as diabetes can assist in empowering individuals to managed stress that appears to have a negative im